Reserves of different countries of the world presentation. Presentation on the topic: National Parks of the World

Etruscan art Ancient Rome The Etruscans were the people of Etruria who lived in the 1st millennium BC. NS. on the Apennine Peninsula, northwest of Rome. The culture arose in the 8th century. BC NS. At the end of the VII century. BC NS. in Etruria, there were religious unions of city-states - twelve degrees. The whole life of the Etruscans was subject to rituals. It is no coincidence that the word "ceremony" originates from the Etruscan city of Cere. Approximately in the 5th-3rd centuries. BC NS. warlike Rome conquered the Etruscan cities, and Roman soldiers settled in them. In the end, the Etruscans forgot their language. Art of the Etruscans The art of the Etruscans has a strong identity and is largely based on the idea of ​​death and the afterlife. The most striking form of art associated with cremation was canopic - clay vessels with a lid for storing the ashes of the dead, found in the vicinity of the city of Chiusi (VII-VI centuries BC). They have many options: some are a vessel designed in the form of a human body, others are a humanoid urn on a throne. Still others depict a human figure standing on a vessel. Finally, the fourth - a person at a ritual feast In VII BC. NS. rich funerary gifts were placed in the tombs: Situla's gold jewelry from the tomb in Chiusi Bronze. Fibula from the tomb of Regolini Galassi. VII century. BC NS. Gold. Kalhant. Etruscan mirror. IV century BC NS. Bronze Etruscan architecture Cities City of the "Living" City of the "Dead" Wood, clay Stone Painting Etruscan fresco painting dates back to the 7th-3rd centuries. BC NS. The most interesting and famous murals were made in the 6th-5th centuries. BC NS. These murals were made in the tombs of Tarquinia, the oldest Etruscan city. For the Etruscans, death and the accompanying transition to a new life is an eternal feast. Fun, joy, carefree enjoyment of blessings distinguish the murals of many tombs. Dancer from the Tomb of the Juggler. V century BC NS. Fresco from the tomb of the Buffaloes. VI century BC NS. Sculpture The bodies of the departed are not found in Etruscan tombs. Sarcophagus of the Banditaccia couple. VI century BC NS. depicts a man and a woman reclining on a bed with long hair, wide eyes and joyful "archaic" smiles. With one hand, the man hugs his wife leaning against him. The spouses have a lively conversation, fixing their gaze on an imaginary viewer. Sarcophagi served as a monument to the deceased. They contained the ashes of the dead Etruscan sarcophagus from the tomb in Chiusi. II century BC NS. Terracotta. Maenad. Antefix of the Juno Sospita Temple. VI-V centuries. BC er Chimera. V century BC NS. Bronze of the Capitoline she-wolf. Around 500 BC NS. Bronze. In the III-I centuries. BC NS. the magnificent art of the tombs fades away. Increasingly, the idea of ​​immortality is embodied in small craft urns for ashes, on the front wall of which are depicted scenes from ancient Greek myths associated with betrayal and murder. The highest achievements of the mysterious people, whose culture is still not properly understood, were inherited by the practical Romans: engineering, the ability to build roads and cities.

Who the Etruscans were and where they came from at the beginning of the 1st millennium on the Apennine Peninsula, even the ancient Roman authors could not say for sure. Modern scientists also have no consensus on this matter. Many are inclined to believe that Asia Minor was the birthplace of the Etruscans, this is confirmed by their ethnic type, close ties with the Phoenicians, as well as many legends.

The writing of the Etruscans could not be completely deciphered, and their once prosperous cities were wiped off the face of the earth many centuries ago, both as a result of wars and the elements: they were swallowed up by sea waters, swamps, covered with clay and silt. Nevertheless, the existence of the Etruscan civilization in the northwest of Italy is undeniably proven.

Their main settlements were located in modern Tuscany, the names of many settlements which, including the word Tuscany itself, are of Etruscan origin. In the 8th century BC, the Etruscans were as skilled in many crafts as the ancient Greeks. Their ties with the Greeks, who had colonies in southern Italy, became more and more strong, especially in the 7-5th centuries BC. The Etruscans used the same pantheon of gods, though sometimes with different names. They built houses and temples very similar in shape to the Greek ones. They often depicted scenes from Greek myths and legends about gods and heroes on their vases and frescoes. The scenes of the Trojan War are especially noteworthy.

Perhaps such a response is found in common history. After all, no wonder, according to legend, the Trojan hero Aeneas fled from burnt Troy to the Italian coast and entered into an alliance with the Etruscans, laying the foundation for the Roman imperial family of Julia. That is why the Roman emperors could rightfully be called "Divine Augustus", etc., because the mother of Aeneas was the goddess Aphrodite.

The time of the highest flowering of Etruscan art - 6-5 centuries BC, in the 4th century BC Etruria began to weaken under the onslaught of the growing Rome, then briefly raised its head and then was swept away from the historical path by the powerful pressure of Republican Rome. The original Etruscan culture was forgotten for a long time, although, as often happens in history, its fruits were actively used.

The Etruscans were not only skilled gold and bronze craftsmen, wonderful potters, painters, sculptors who created magnificent portraits, but also excellent engineers and architects. The field of activity of Etruscan architects was extremely wide.

They built cities, including the famous port of Spina, one of the largest in the ancient world, as well as Volterra, Cervetri, Veii, Perugia and others. Etruscan cities had fortified walls with an arch-shaped gateway, a form that the Romans borrowed from them. Streets in cities intersected at right angles, which the Romans also adopted from them for their civil and military settlements. The Etruscans built beautiful roads and threw bridges across rivers, which the Romans also took up.

Etruscan buildings were built from clay, brick, wood and stone. Overlapping stone temples were often made of wood using iron ties. The temples resembled Greek peripteres in shape, but since the soil in Etruria is swampy, they were raised to a high stone podium, as can be seen in the later buildings of Rome. A wide staircase led to the entrance.

Within the walls of the ancient Etruscan cities, we find all genera of cyclopean and polygonal masonry. The best examples of correct polygonal masonry without the use of cement are the city walls of Cossa and Preneste (Palestrina). Incorrect layering of hewn stones is found in the walls of Fezoul (Fiesole), Perusia (Perugia), Volaterra (Volterra), Cortona and Vetulonia. Correct masonry, which differs in Etruria in that the stones of a quadrangular prismatic shape are facing outward alternately with long rectangular and short square sides, we see in the Phalerias and in Ardea, as well as in the most ancient parts of the walls of Rome.

Until recently, the Etruscans were given special credit for the fact that they were the first in Europe to remove vaults from wedge-shaped hewn stones; they were even considered the inventors of such a code, but it is now known that it had long been known in the East and in Greece. Be that as it may, the Etruscans, in addition to a false vault, that is, formed by the protrusions of the upper stones of the regular horizontal masonry above the lower stones, as, for example, in the Arpino gate, in the Roman Carcer Mamertinum and in the chamber above the cistern in Tusculum, arranged very skillfully and real vaults; this is evidenced by the huge Cloaca Maxima in Rome, one of the gates in the city walls of Perugia and a triumphal arch with three statues of heads on the initial stones and on the keystone of its vault, in Volterra.

The most numerous category of surviving works of Etruscan architecture is funerary monuments. No people in ancient world, except for the Egyptians, did not care as carefully about the arrangement of places of eternal rest for the dead as the Etruscans. Their cemeteries, which occupy vast spaces, mark the main points of Etruscan settlement.

The simplest of the tombs found in these necropolises can be ranked among the mounds common among primitive peoples. Arranged quite often in a very large size, they consisted of a round base, correctly built of stone, and of a huge earthen embankment in the form of a cone rising above it, which was sometimes replaced by several cones or conical towers; inside such a monument there was a burial chamber covered with a false or real vault. This type of tombs, which, no doubt, arose in Italy itself, remained in it until the last times of the Roman Empire.

Among the most ambitious monuments of this kind is the so-called "Cucumella", near Vulchi. According to the descriptions of ancient authors, Porsenna's tomb consisted of five towers on a quadrangular foot, with four of them being at its corners, and the fifth in the middle. The latest example of such a device is the so-called "Tomb of the Horatii and Curiatii" in Albano, in the vicinity of Rome. There are also tombstones in the form of quadrangular mausoleums, built of slabs, with a pyramidal stone top, separated from the bottom by a wide strip of ramparts and gutters, such as those in Orvieto.

The third type of Etruscan tombs, caves carved into the rock, are obviously borrowed from the East, from Lydia. They were installed where possible, and were often decorated with a smooth facade, the middle of which was occupied by a door, for the most part false, and which ended at the top with a horizontal strip of ramparts and gutters, like the one just mentioned. The interior of the Etruscan tombs is even more curious than their appearance. Belief in the afterlife of man prompted them to arrange them on the model of living quarters. The dead, or their sarcophagi, or urns with their ashes, were placed on benches near the walls or in niches like alcoves, and in order for those who departed to the next world not to feel the need for anything necessary, they were surrounded by an abundance of various household utensils. The doors, real or fake, were framed by platbands that had protrusions at the top in either direction, to the right and to the left (characteristic Etruscan motif).

In one of the tombs in Cervetri, beautifully shaped seats are carved into the rock. The ceiling decoration in the burial chambers mimicked the wooden roofs of the Etruscan houses; when the size of the chamber required it, it was propped up with pillars, as, for example, in Cervetri, or columns, as, for example, in Bomarzo, and similarities of beams and other details of the construction of wooden ceilings were cut out on it. Ceilings with real cassettes are also quite common.

One of the tombs in Corneto gives a clear idea of ​​the internal appearance of the Etruscan atrium described by Vitruvius in residential buildings, with its opening for light in the middle of the ceiling, not yet supported by columns, as in the Romans; you can get an idea of ​​the appearance of such houses from one terracotta urn in the form of a house, which is kept in the Florentine Museum. Another urn from the same museum proves that the Etruscans also had houses with a pediment and without a hole in the roof, which received illumination through wide windows in the side walls or through open galleries.

The Etruscan rites of sacrifice differed from the Greek ones in the abundance of shed blood. Their funeral was accompanied by human sacrifices and bloody battles, which later passed on to the Romans in the form of gladiatorial battles. All these buildings of the Etruscans have not survived to our time or are in a badly destroyed state, but whole cities of the dead - necropolises - that were usually carried outside the city walls, have been perfectly preserved.

Tomb of Kutu,
builders are unknown, III-Ic. BC.
Italy, Perugia

In Etruria, the cult of ancestors was very developed, which became the source of the development of the sculptural portrait inherited by the Romans, and the cult of the afterlife, which led to the construction of rich tombs, different in materials and shape, but similar in the abundance of pictorial and sculptural decorations. In Cervetri, several hundred round tombs have been preserved, laid out of stone and covered with an earthen hill on top. These are the so-called tumulus. In southern Etruria, where a chamber could be carved into the soft tuff rocks, the tombs resembled caves, although they often used stone blocks and ceilings.

Domed tomb,
builders are unknown, VII century. BC. Italy, Cervetri

In the premises of the tombs, everything reminds of the joys of earthly life: scenes of feasts, dances, battles, hunting are depicted on frescoes. Even on burial urns and sarcophagi, the faces of people who have long gone are illuminated with a blissful smile. The need for accurate portrait resemblance to perpetuate the appearance of a deceased ancestor led to such a development of a realistic portrait that even in republican Rome the best bronze portraits were made by Etruscan masters.

The Etruscans loved to decorate the posthumous asylums of their loved ones with wall paintings and depicted in them scenes of everyday life, hunting, feasts, funeral rites, the alleged afterlife with the participation of winged deities of death, light and dark, and in a later time also plots drawn from Greek mythology. Most of these paintings are in the tombs of Corneto, Chiusi, Cervetri, Vulci and Orvieto; in other necropolises, wall painting is found only in isolated cases. In technical terms, these are contour drawings made on raw lime, illuminated with a real fresco method and only in some places slightly corrected with tempera.

The background of the walls was usually white or yellowish; the colors in which the image stood out against this background were at first very few - dark brown, red and yellow; then blue, gray, white, various shades of red and, later, green were added to them. In the end, the Etruscans learned how to obtain transitional tones by mixing basic colors. The artistic merit of these frescoes is not the same: some are performed timidly, with constrained and conventional positions of figures and with inept arrangement of draperies; others are much bolder and perfectly match the style of Greek vase painting.

The grouping of the figures is quite simple and for the most part is limited to placing them in one row and often separated from each other by trees or vines. The coloring of the figures is striking, so arbitrary and unnatural that one might think that people and animals were painted this way out of prank; for example, in one burial grotto in Veii, the horse's head is black, the mane is yellow, the back is red, and the legs are orange and black. But maybe the colors of the paints in similar cases had any symbolic meaning that we have not figured out.

Necropolis of the Banditach,
builders are unknown, VII-VI centuries. BC.
Italy, Cervetri

In business sculptures the Etruscans were under Greek, namely Ionic, influence, not moving forward beyond the borders of archaism. Their main material for sculpting was clay. The terracotta statue of Jupiter in his capitoline temple in Rome, the quadriga on the ridge of this building's pediment, and its other sculptural decorations were executed by the Etruscan master, Volkanii (Vulk) of Wei. These works disappeared without a trace.

Large terracotta figures have been preserved for us mainly on the lids of sarcophagi. The most remarkable sculptures of this kind come from Cervetri and are kept one in the Louvre Museum, in Paris, and the other in the British Museum, in London. They depict a couple of spouses, half-sitting on a bed, modeled dryly, archaically, incorrectly in relation to proportions, but very vital. In these and similar groups, as well as in individual statues, it is not difficult to notice the main features of the ancient Greek style, but also the desire to correctly and simply convey reality.

Etruscan sarcophagus from the Banditaccia necropolis

Together with the cult of their ancestors, the Romans also adopted the art of portraiture. It turns out that the mighty Roman state, which conquered half the world, overshadowed its immediate predecessors and teachers, the Etruscans, without whose high civilization there would have been no many achievements attributed to the Roman genius, including the Capitoline she-wolf, who nursed the founders of Rome Romulus and Remus, so as it was created by an unknown Etruscan master.

In this statue, as you know, the figures of the twin brothers were added in the 16th century by the Italian artist Guglielmo della Porto, as for the she-wolf herself, she stirred up a lot of controversy: some recognized her as an Etruscan work, others as purely Greek, and some even attributed her to the Christian Middle centuries. Most likely, it was sculptured by an Ionian Greek in Central Italy, for Rome, about 500 BC.

Archin Perugia,
builders are unknown, III-II centuries BC.
Italy, Perugia

The dominant position in the cities of the Etruscans was occupied by temples. The architecture of Etruscan temples was formed under Greek influence: the temple was located on a podium, that is, on a pedestal, the front part of which was decided in the form of a staircase. Behind the entrance portico was the main room, usually divided into three longitudinal parts - the sanctuary of the three gods.

You can get an idea of ​​Etruscan temple buildings from the statements of ancient authors (Vitruvius), some terracotta burial urns that reproduce their shape (an urn from Satricum), rare temple ruins (the acropolis in Marzabotto and Pyrga), as well as from their terracotta decorations that have come down to us ( Nemi, Faleria Veteres, etc.).

The temples had deep porticos, from where the priests-augurs watched the flight of birds and made their predictions. They also used the liver of the sacrificial animals to guess.

In the architecture of the temples, a specific order was used, which during the Renaissance was reworked into the so-called tuscan warrant.

The columns in their shape originate from the Doric order, but they have a base, a smooth trunk with entasis and a capital consisting of a neck, echinus and abacus.

The entablature is simple, without rhythmic articulations. This type of temple with a three-part inner space and an open entrance portico became the basis for later Roman temples.

The temples were lavishly decorated with painted sculpture and terracotta architectural details. Therefore, unlike the modest residential buildings, the temples were striking in their wealth and brightness.

We can form a concept of Etruscan temples solely from their description by Vitruvius; from them nothing has come down to us, except for traces of foundations and scanty rubble (in Alatri, Civita-Castelana, Faleria and Marzabotto): the fact that their design included a lot of wood, as well as the rapid disappearance of the Etruscans themselves from the historical scene, prevented these monuments of their architecture will survive at least to some extent.

In general, the Etruscan temple was significantly different from the Greek, despite the fact that it borrowed its main features from it. A staircase led to its high base, arranged only on one, front side. The temple itself was a quadrangle in plan, the front part of which was occupied by a wide and deep portico with a pediment supported by four columns, which sometimes had two or more columns in its depth. Each of the three spaces between the columns of the façade led to the front door to one of the three cellas into which the temple was divided. Each cella was dedicated to one deity, and often to three deities at a time.

The middle spacing between the columns and the middle cella were usually wider than the rest. The rear wall and side walls of the building were blank, but the front colonnade often continued along its sides. Since the entire upper part of the temple was built mostly of wood and therefore did not need particularly solid support, the columns were thin and slender. In their style, they resembled Greek Doric columns, but the shapes of their capitals and bases were skinny and lacking in harmonious proportion.

In addition to such columns, pillars and columns were used, resembling the Ionic and Corinthian ones, but poorly processed. The entablature did not originally contain the frieze itself. Above a strongly protruding cornice rose a gable roof, steeper than that of Greek temples; the pediment she formed was high and heavy. Subsequently, under the influence of Greek designs, there appeared: on the entablature a triglyph frieze, which, however, had only a decorative value, above the top and above the lower ends of the pediment terracotta or bronze decorations (acroteria), and on its tympanum the same statues and reliefs.

The most famous temple of the Etruscan style was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill in Rome, founded around 509 BC In addition to this sanctuary, there were several other temples of the Etruscan type in Rome. According to the testimony of Vitruvius, the Etruscans, along with the temples of the quadrangular plan, also built round ones; you can hardly make a mistake if you imagine temples of this kind similar in small form and in general outline to the Roman Pantheon, that is, buildings of a cylindrical shape with a portico attached to the front.

Already by the VII century. BC NS. in Etruria, two types of temples were formed - with one whole and three. A wide staircase led to the entrance to the buildings that stood on high podiums; the entrance portico was wide and deep. On the sides and in the back, the temples usually did not have columns, there was no entrance on the back side. The main feature of Etruscan temple architecture is the facade of the structure.

Outstanding monuments of Etruscan architecture are three churches on the acropolis of Marzabotto, from one of which a podium made of blocks of travertine with a complex profile of the outer side and a staircase leading to this pod has been well preserved. The roofs of Etruscan temples, protruding over the porticoes, supported Tuscan columns with capitals resembling Doric ones, but with profiled bases below. The sparse arrangement of the columns provided a sense of the wideness of the portico space. The overlap of the gable roof consisted of terracotta tiles.

Gateway to Volterra
III-II centuries BC Volterran, Italy

Temples were decorated with statues. The overwhelming majority of Etruscan temple sculpture is not stone or bronze, but somewhat lighter - terracotta, the weight of which could withstand the mud walls and wooden floors of temples. Covering the surface of the beams with patterned terracotta friezes, it performed not only a decorative function, but also a cult function in the images of antefixes, subject reliefs, and large statues of deities. An idea of ​​the principles of such decorations is given by terracotta models of temples from Vulci (6th century BC), a sculptural pediment from Nemi (end of the 4th - 3rd centuries BC), a terracotta pediment with a scene of a gigantomachi from Pyrgi (all from Museum Villa Giulia).

Etruscan temples were skillfully decorated with antefixes. The sculptor of the temple in Veii, possibly Vulka, performed the antefix in the form of the head of Medusa the Gorgon with a wide open mouth and protruding tongue, with rings of snakes flexingly wriggling around the face of the monster, bulging eyes and raised eyebrows. The antefixes that completed the edges of the tiles were necessary building elements, sometimes drainage systems - through the open mouth of the Gorgon, rainwater had to drain from the roof along the protruding tongue. Antefixes also performed the cult task of the apotropes. Apotropes protected the temples from evil forces. Perceived from a distance, they played a decorative role, enlivening the calm planes of the walls with their forms.

Reserves of Russia

Information about several reserves in Russia.

• Tell your classmates about Russian reserves and show photographs.

• Nowadays, few people understand the importance of reserves and no one has ever thought about the fact that some species of animals can become extinct forever.

• Barguzin reserve is a nature reserve in Buryatia, located on the western slopes, at an altitude of 2840 m of the Barguzinsky ridge, includes the northeastern coast of Lake Baikal and part of the water area of ​​the lake itself. The reserve (and the ridge) are named after the Barguzin River. The Barguzinsky Reserve is the oldest reserve in Russia.

• The area of ​​the reserve is 374 322 hectares, including 15 000 hectares of the protected water area.

• Elk, musk deer, white hare, brown bear, shrew, black-capped marmot, hazel grouse live in the Barguzinsky reserve - there are 41 species of mammals in total. In the waters of the reserve there are omul, whitefish, sturgeon, grayling, taimen, lenok and other fish species.

• It was founded in 1992 on the basis of the state complex “Dzherginsky” reserve, which existed since 1974. State nature reserve Dzherginsky is located in the Kurumkansky district of the Republic of Buryatia. The reserve is located in the northeastern Baikal region at the junction of three large mountain ranges- Barguzinsky, Ikatsky and Yuzhno-Muisky ridges.

• Dzherginsky Reserve "is a state natural reserve.

• The area of ​​the reserve is 238.088 thousand hectares, of which the area occupied by water is 0.894 thousand hectares. A 2 km wide protection zone with a total area of ​​about 7.5 million hectares has been created around the reserve.

• Currently, 201 species of vertebrates are recorded on the territory of the reserve: 6 species of fish, 3 amphibians, 4 reptiles, 145 birds, 43 mammals. The reserve is home to elk, musk deer, red deer, wild boar, Siberian roe deer, rarely - reindeer ...

• Larch forests prevail in the forest belt. On this moment more than 650 species of vascular plants have been identified in the reserve. On the territory of the reserve, 29 species of rare and endemic plants have been identified.

• The Baikal State Natural Biosphere Reserve was established by the Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR dated September 26, 1969 No. 571 on the basis of the Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the Buryat ASSR dated December 31, 1968 No. 461.

• Area - 165,724 hectares, taking into account the changes introduced by the order of the Council of Ministers of the RSFSR dated June 20, 1973 No. 366-r.

• There are 49 species of mammals, 251 species are birds, amphibians and reptiles - 6, fish - 12.

• 787 plant species grow in the reserve, about 70% of the territory of the reserve is occupied by forests. The general list of rare, endemic and relict plants of the reserve is about 40 species.

• 1) From the lessons of geography and biology.
• 2) From the Internet.
• 3) From the book "Reserves of Russia"