Oceania borders on the map. Oceania
Geographical location of Oceania, countries and dependent territories of Oceania
Geology and climate of Oceania, soils and hydrology of Oceania, economy and culture of Oceania, Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand and Polynesia
Section 1. Basic characteristics of Oceania.
Section 2. Physical and geographical countries of Oceania.
Oceania- this is part of the world; a geographic, often geopolitical region of the world, consisting predominantly of hundreds of small islands and atolls in the central and western Pacific.
Main characteristics of Oceania
Oceania is the world's largest cluster of islands located in the western and central Pacific Ocean, between the subtropical latitudes of the Northern and temperate Southern hemispheres. When dividing the entire land mass into parts of the world, Oceania is usually united with Australia into a single part of the world, Australia and Oceania, although sometimes it stands out as an independent part of the world.
Oceania is a large number of islands (about ten thousand) located in the center and South-West of the Pacific Ocean. Oceania is located between the Malay Archipelago and Australia. It is divided into Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, sometimes New Zealand is distinguished. The total area of the islands is about 1.25 million square kilometers. These islands are inhabited by approximately 18 million people.
Oceania is based on New Zealand (South and North Islands), and New Guinea... These islands make up 4/5 of the entire territory. The islands of western Micronesia and Melanesia are a large mountain range that rises from the bottom of the ocean, the peaks are located above the water. These islands are craters of underwater volcanoes: Samoa, Cook, Easter, Hawaiian, Marquesas.
In Hawaii: Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, if counted from the bottom of the ocean, reach nine thousand meters. But mainly Micronesia and Polynesia islands of animal origin (atolls) are coral. They grew out of the underwater craters of volcanoes.
Oceania is a kind of natural wonder, each island is its own world, with its own delights. The flora is very diverse. Some islands have vegetation from all climatic zones. The characteristic tree of Oceania is the coconut palm. Its wood is used for construction; ropes are woven from palm fibers. Coconut oil is used to make soap, margarine.
The total area of the islands is 1.26 million km² (together with Australia 8.52 million km²), the population is about 10.7 million people. (together with Australia 32.6 million people). Oceania is geographically subdivided into Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia; sometimes New Zealand is singled out.
In the Pacific Ocean, in its central and western parts, there is the largest cluster of islands on the globe, with a total area of about 1.26 million km2, most of which are grouped in archipelagos. All islands are united under the name Oceania. The development of Oceania took place in conditions of long-term isolation from the mainland land, which determines the deep uniqueness of its landscapes. It manifests itself both in the geological structure and relief, and in the high endemism and poverty of the species composition of flora and fauna, especially in the most remote eastern islands... These reasons give rise to the separation of Oceania into a special part of the world with the dominance of oceanic landscapes, which has no analogues on the continents. The geological structure of the islands of Oceania is in direct connection with the structure of the bottom of the Pacific Ocean. Almost all islands are of coral or volcanic origin. In the central part of Oceania (in Polynesia and eastern Micronesia), they represent the tops of submarine volcanoes, crowning underwater ridges, erected by powerful outpourings of basaltic lavas at the end of the Neogene and in the Quaternary period along the fault lines of the ancient oceanic platform of the Pacific Ocean floor. The formation of coral islands took place in the Quaternary period in connection with ecstatic fluctuations in the level of the Pacific Ocean and troughs of parts of its bottom. The islands, concentrated on the western outskirts of Oceania, lie in the zones of geosynclinal structures framing the central platform, and are (according to V.V. Belousov) the tops of grandiose underwater ridges, advanced structures of geosynclinal zones. On the outer (oceanic) side, these islands are framed by deep-sea depressions, which are extremely pronounced in the topography of the ocean floor due to extremely slow processes of drift and accumulation of sediments. Mountain-building movements in the peripheral Pacific geosynclines were actively manifested in the Mesozoic and Alpine cycles, but have not ended even now, as evidenced by frequent and strong earthquakes and active volcanism on the islands. The islands of western Oceania are the largest and most mountainous. Among them, New Zealand and New Guinea stand out for their size and high-mountainous relief, which account for 80% of Oceania's land area. The islands are scattered in latitudes ranging from subtropical in the northern hemisphere to temperate in the southern (lie between 28 ° 25 "N and 52 ° 30" S and 130 ° E and 105 ° 20 "W) , but most of them are concentrated in the subequatorial belts, which determines the main features of the temperature and moisture regime.The influence of the land affects the climate of the islands closest to Australia and Southeast Asia.
The rest are characterized by small daily and seasonal amplitudes of high temperatures, constantly high relative humidity and a large amount of precipitation, due to the exclusive dominance of sea air masses. Average temperatures of the warmest months (August in the northern hemisphere, February in the southern) vary from 25 ° С in the north to 16 ° С in the south, the coldest (February and August) from 16 ° С to 5 ° С. Sharp fluctuations in seasonal and daily temperatures are typical only for mountainous islands, which exhibit high-altitude climatic zones. In New Zealand and New Guinea, high-altitude climatic zones end in a nival climate. Average annual precipitation rates vary enormously depending on orography. Wet winds (mainly the trade winds of both hemispheres) sweep freely over low small islands, but rise along the windward slopes of high mountainous islands, which receive abundant orographic rains (in places up to 9000 mm and more). This creates sharp climatic and landscape contrasts of slopes of different exposure. Evergreen humid forests grow on the windward slopes, a dense network of deep rivers develops, erosion and chemical weathering of rocks are active, podzolization of lateritic soils occurs. The leeward slopes are dominated by mixed (deciduous-evergreen) forests, xerophytic light forests and peculiar oceanic savannas with hard grasses, pandanus, coconut groves. Low islands, where mainly cyclonic precipitation of tropical fronts falls, are covered with oceanic savannas, forests of coconut palms and pandanus, mangroves (mainly on coral islands) and even semi-desert vegetation; outcrops of dense unweathered basalts are completely bare. The large islands of Oceania were centers of flora formation. At the same time, many plant species migrated to the islands from Australia, and mainly from the Malay Archipelago and Southeast Asia, as a result of which almost all of Oceania is included in the Maleesian floristic subregion of the Paleotropics, which is extremely poor in species composition and highly endemic. The question of the distribution of organisms in Oceania remains unresolved. It is generally believed that the migration took place over temporary land bridges. On the other hand, one cannot underestimate the role of winds, currents, birds and, finally, people, who in ancient times made long voyages between archipelagos. The greatest flora endemism is found in New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, allocated in special subregions. Among the plants of Oceania, there are many useful for humans: coconut and sago palms, bananas, rubber plants, mango, melon and breadfruit.
Many tropical crops are grown on the islands, pineapples, bananas, sugarcane, etc. The oceanic expanses present great difficulties for the settlement of animals, therefore the composition of the fauna in Oceania is very specific, characterized by great impoverishment, primarily due to the almost complete absence of mammals. For this reason, most of Oceania is classified as the Polynesian Zoogeographic Region. On the islands there are a lot of well-flying birds (swifts, pigeons, etc.) and there are some small animals (mainly bats, dogs and foxes, lizards), as well as insects that were accidentally brought on the trunks of floating trees. Great harm to the fauna of Oceania was caused by the imported animals and birds, many of which occupied empty ecological niches, found a favorable breeding environment and sometimes completely destroyed not only local animals, but also the vegetation cover. Regional landscape differences make it possible to distinguish four physical and geographical countries in Oceania: Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand and Polynesia.
The islands of Oceania are washed by numerous Pacific seas (Coral Sea, Tasman Sea, Fiji Sea, Koro Sea, Solomon Sea, New Guinea Sea, Philippine Sea) and Indian oceans(Arafura Sea).
Geologically, Oceania is not a continent: only Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, New Guinea and Tasmania are of continental origin, forming on the site of the hypothetical mainland of Gondwana. In the past, these islands were a single land, but as a result of the rise in the level of the World Ocean, a significant part of the surface was under water. The relief of these islands is mountainous and highly dissected. For example, highest mountains Oceania, including Mount Jaya (5029 m), are located on the island of New Guinea.
Most of the islands in Oceania are of volcanic origin: some of them are the tops of large underwater volcanoes, some of which are still highly volcanic (for example, the Hawaiian Islands).
Other islands are of coral origin, being atolls, which were formed as a result of the formation of coral structures around submerged volcanoes (for example, Gilbert Islands, Tuamotu). A distinctive feature of such islands are large lagoons, which are surrounded by numerous islets, or motu, whose average height does not exceed three meters. In Oceania, there is an atoll with the largest lagoon in the world - Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands archipelago. Despite the fact that its land area is only 16.32 km² (or 6.3 sq. Miles), the area of the lagoon is 2,174 km² (or 839.3 sq. Miles). The largest atoll in terms of land area is Christmas Island (or Kiritimati) in the Line archipelago (or Central Polynesian Sporades) - 322 km². However, among the atolls, there is also a special type - an uplifted (or uplifted) atoll, which is a limestone plateau up to 50-60 m above sea level. This type of island has no lagoon or traces of its past existence. Examples of such atolls are Nauru, Niue, Banaba.
The relief and geological structure of the Pacific Ocean floor in the Oceania region has a complex structure. From the Alaska Peninsula (part of North America) to New Zealand, there are a large number of depressions of the marginal seas, deep oceanic trenches (Tonga, Kermadec, Bougainville), which form a geosynclinal belt characterized by active volcanism, seismicity and contrasting relief.
On most of the islands of Oceania, there are no minerals, only the largest of them are being developed: nickel (New Caledonia), oil and gas (New Guinea island, New Zealand), copper (Bougainville island in Papua New Guinea), gold (New Guinea , Fiji), phosphates (on most islands, deposits are almost or have already been developed, for example, in Nauru, on the islands of Banaba, Makatea). In the past, many islands in the region have been actively developing guano, a decomposed dung of seabirds that has been used as a nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer. On the ocean floor of the exclusive economic zone of a number of countries, there are large accumulations of iron-manganese nodules, as well as cobalt, but at the moment no development is being carried out due to economic inexpediency.
Oceania is located within several climatic zones: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate. Most of the islands have a tropical climate. The subequatorial climate prevails on the islands near Australia and Asia, as well as to the east of the 180th meridian in the equatorial zone, the equatorial climate to the west of the 180th meridian, the subtropical climate north and south of the tropics, and temperate in most of the South Island in New Zealand.
The climate of the islands of Oceania is determined mainly by the trade winds, so most of them receive heavy rainfall. Average annual precipitation ranges from 1,500 to 4,000 mm, although on some islands (in particular due to the relief and on the leeward side), the climate may be drier or more humid. One of the wettest places on the planet is located in Oceania: on the eastern slope of Mount Waialeale on the island of Kauai, up to 11,430 mm of precipitation falls annually (the absolute maximum was reached in 1982: then 16,916 mm fell). Near the tropics, the average temperature is about 23 ° C, at the equator - 27 ° C, with little difference between the hottest and coldest months.
The climate of the Oceania islands is also greatly influenced by such anomalies as the El Niño and La Niña currents. During El Niño, the intertropical convergence zone moves north towards the equator; during La Niño, it moves south towards the equator. In the latter case, severe drought is observed on the islands, in the first case, heavy rains.
Most of the islands of Oceania are subject to the destructive effects of natural disasters: volcanic eruptions (Hawaiian Islands, New Hebrides), earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones accompanied by typhoons and heavy rains, and droughts. Many of them lead to significant material and human losses. For example, the July 1999 tsunami in Papua New Guinea killed 2,200 people.
There are glaciers on the South Island in New Zealand and on the island of New Guinea high in the mountains, but due to the process of global warming, their area is gradually decreasing.
Due to the different climatic conditions, the soils of Oceania are very diverse. The soils of the atolls are highly alkaline, of coral origin, and very poor. They are usually porous, which makes them very poor at retaining moisture, and also contain very little organic and mineral substances with the exception of calcium, sodium and magnesium. The soils of volcanic islands are generally of volcanic origin and are highly fertile. On large mountainous islands, there are red-yellow, mountain lateritic, mountain-meadow, yellow-brown soils, yellow soils, and red soils.
Large rivers are found only on the South and North Islands of New Zealand, as well as on the island of New Guinea, on which the largest rivers of Oceania, Sepik (1126 km) and Fly (1050 km) are located. The largest river in New Zealand is the Waikato (425 km). Rivers are primarily fed by rainwater, although in New Zealand and New Guinea rivers are also fed by melting glaciers and snow. On the atolls, rivers are completely absent due to the high porosity of the soils. Instead, rainwater seeps through the soil to form a lens of slightly brackish water that can be reached by digging a well. For more large islands(usually of volcanic origin) there are small streams of water that flow towards the ocean.
The largest number of lakes, including thermal ones, is located in New Zealand, where there are also geysers. On other islands in Oceania, lakes are rare.
Oceania is part of the Paleotropic Vegetation Region, with three subregions distinguished: Melanesian-Micronesian, Hawaiian, and New Zealand. Among the most widespread plants in Oceania, the coconut palm and breadfruit are distinguished, which play an important role in the life of local residents: fruits are used for food, wood is a source of heat, a building material, from the oily endosperm of nuts coconut tree produce copra, which forms the basis of the export of the countries of this region. A large number of epiphytes (ferns, orchids) also grow on the islands. The largest number of endemics (both representatives of flora and fauna) is recorded in New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, while the number of species, genera and families of plants decreases from west to east.
The fauna of Oceania belongs to the Polynesian faunal region with a subregion of the Hawaiian Islands. The fauna of New Zealand stands out as an independent region, New Guinea - in the Papuan subregion of the Australian region. New Zealand and New Guinea are the most diverse. On the small islands of Oceania, primarily the atolls, mammals are almost never found: many of them are inhabited only by the small rat. But the local avifauna is very rich. Most of the atolls are home to bird colonies where seabirds nest. Among the representatives of the fauna of New Zealand, the most famous are the kiwi birds, which have become the national symbol of the country. Other endemics of the country are kea (lat.Nestor notabilis, or nestor), kakapo (lat.Strigops habroptilus, or owl parrot), takahe (lat.Notoronis hochstelteri, or wingless sultanka). All the islands of Oceania are home to a large number of lizards, snakes and insects.
During the European colonization of the islands, alien species of plants and animals were introduced to many of them, which negatively affected the local flora and fauna.
The region has a large number of protected areas, many of which occupy significant areas. For example, the Phoenix Islands in the Republic of Kiribati have been the world's largest marine reserve since January 28, 2008 (with an area of 410,500 km²).
The indigenous inhabitants of Oceania are Polynesians, Micronesians, Melanesians and Papuans.
Polynesians living in the countries of Polynesia are of a mixed racial type: in their appearance, the features of the Caucasian and Mongoloid races are visible, and to a lesser extent - the Australoid. The largest peoples of Polynesia are Hawaiians, Samoans, Tahitians, Tongans, Maori, Marquesas, Rapanui and others. Native languages belong to the Polynesian subgroup of the Austronesian family of languages: Hawaiian, Samoan, Tahitian, Tongan, Maori, Marquis, Rapanui, and others. The characteristic features of Polynesian languages are a small number of sounds, especially consonants, an abundance of vowels.
Micronesians live in the countries of Micronesia. The largest peoples are the Carolinians, Kiribati, Marshalls, Nauru, Chamorro and others. Native languages belong to the Micronesian group of the Austronesian family of languages: Kiribati, Caroline, Kusai, Marshall, Nauruan and others. The Palau and Chamorro languages belong to West Malay-Polynesian, and Yapi forms a separate branch in the Oceanian languages, which also includes the Micronesian languages.
Melanesians live in the countries of Melanesia. Racial type - Australoid, with a small Mongoloid element, close to the Papuans of New Guinea. Melanesians speak Melanesian languages, however, their languages, unlike Micronesian and Polynesian, do not form a separate genetic grouping, and linguistic fragmentation is very large, so that people from neighboring villages may not understand each other.
Papuans inhabit the island of New Guinea and parts of Indonesia. In their anthropological type, they are close to the Melanesians, but differ from them in language. Not all Papuan languages are related to each other. The national language of the Papuans in Papua New Guinea is the English-based Tok Pisin Creole. According to various sources, the peoples and languages of the Papuans number from 300 to 800. At the same time, there are difficulties in establishing the difference between a separate language and a dialect.
Many languages of Oceania are on the verge of extinction. In everyday life, they are increasingly being replaced by English and French.
The situation of the indigenous population in the countries of Oceania is different. If, for example, in the Hawaiian Islands their share is very low, then in New Zealand the Maori make up up to 15% of the country's population. The share of Polynesians in the Northern Mariana Islands, located in Micronesia, is about 21.3%. In Papua New Guinea, the majority of the population is made up of numerous Papuan peoples, although there is also a high proportion of immigrants from other islands in the region.
In New Zealand and Hawaii, the majority of the population is Europeans, whose share is also high in New Caledonia (34%) and in French Polynesia(12 %). On the Fiji Islands, 38.2% of the population is represented by Indo-Fijians, the descendants of Indian contract workers brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century.
Recently, in the countries of Oceania, the proportion of immigrants from Asia (mainly Chinese and Filipinos) has been increasing. For example, in the Northern Mariana Islands, the Filipinos account for 26.2% and the Chinese for 22.1%.
The population of Oceania is mainly Christian, adhering to either the Protestant or Catholic branch.
The island of New Guinea and the nearby islands of Melanesia were, presumably, inhabited by immigrants from Southeast Asia, who sailed by canoe about 30-50 thousand years ago. Most of Micronesia and Polynesia were inhabited about 2-4 thousand years ago. The colonization process ended around 1200 AD. By the beginning of the 16th century, the peoples of Oceania were going through a period of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of an early class society. Crafts, agriculture, and navigation were actively developing.
In the period from the 16th to the 18th century, the period of the study of Oceania by Europeans continued, who gradually began to populate the islands. However, the process of European colonization proceeded very slowly, since the region did not arouse much interest among foreigners due to the lack of natural resources, and negatively affected the local population: many diseases were introduced that had never been in Oceania, and this led to epidemics, in as a result of which a significant part of the natives perished. At the same time, there was a Christianization of the inhabitants, who worshiped numerous deities and spirits.
In the 18th-19th centuries, the islands of Oceania were divided between the colonial powers, primarily the British Empire, Spain and France (later the United States and the German Empire joined them). Of particular interest among the Europeans was the possibility of creating plantations on the islands (coconut trees for the production of copra, sugarcane), as well as the slave trade (the so-called "hunt for blackbirds", which involved the recruitment of islanders to work on the plantations).
In 1907, New Zealand became a dominion, but it did not formally become a fully independent state until 1947. After the First World War, the first political organizations began to emerge ("May" in Western Samoa, "Fijian Youth" in Fiji), fighting for the independence of the colonies. During World War II, Oceania was one of the theaters of military operations, where many battles took place (mainly between Japanese and American troops).
After the war, the region experienced some improvements in the economy, but in most colonies it was one-sided (the predominance of the plantation economy and the almost complete absence of industry). Since the 1960s, the process of decolonization began: in 1962, Western Samoa gained independence, in 1963 - West Irian, in 1968 - Nauru. Subsequently, most of the colonies became independent.
After gaining independence, most of the countries of Oceania still have serious economic, political and social problems, which they are trying to solve thanks to the help of the world community (including the UN) and through regional cooperation. Despite the process of decolonization in the 20th century, some of the region's islands still remain dependent to one degree or another: New Caledonia, French Polynesia and Wallis and Futuna from France, Pitcairn Islands from Great Britain, Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau from New Zealand, a number of islands (all outer minor islands except Navassa Island) from the United States.
Most of the countries of Oceania have a very weak economy, which is due to several reasons: limited natural resources, remoteness from world markets for products, a shortage of highly qualified specialists. Many states depend on financial assistance from other countries.
The economy of most countries in Oceania is based on agriculture (copra and palm oil production) and fishing. Among the most important crops are coconut, bananas, breadfruit. Possessing huge exclusive economic zones and not having a large fishing fleet, the governments of the Oceania countries issue fishing licenses to vessels of other states (mainly Japan, Taiwan, the USA), which significantly replenishes the state budget. The mining industry is most developed in Papua New Guinea, Nauru, New Caledonia, and New Zealand.
A significant part of the population is employed in the public sector. Recently, measures have been taken to develop the tourism sector of the economy.
The art of Oceania has developed a distinctive style that makes the local culture unique.
In the visual arts of the Polynesians, the main place belongs to woodcarving and sculpture. Among the Maori, carving reached a high level, they decorated boats, details of houses, carved statues of gods and ancestors, such a statue stands in every village. The main motive of the ornament is a spiral. Moai stone statues were created on Easter Island and the Marquesas Islands. Of the crafts, the most important was the construction of boats, since they made it possible to fish and travel long distances (in this regard, astronomy developed among the Polynesians). Among the Polynesians, tattooing was widespread. Tapa, which was made from the bark of trees of the mulberry family, served as clothing. In Polynesia, myths, legends, fairy tales, singing and dancing were developed. Writing was probably only on Easter Island (rongo-rongo); on other islands, folklore was transmitted orally.
Singing and dancing are popular among the Micronesian arts. Each tribe has its own myths. In the life of the islanders, the main place was occupied by ships - boats. There were boats of different types: dibenil - sailing, valab - large rowing boat. Megaliths are found on the Yap Islands. Of particular interest is Nan Madol, known as the "Micronesian Venice". This is a whole city on the water, in the lagoon on the island of Ponape. Stone structures have been built on artificial islands.
Among the Melanesians, woodcarving reached a special heyday. Unlike the Polynesians, the Melanesians were not so attached to the sea, they were more like inhabitants of the land. The main musical instrument is the drum, or tomtam. Folklore, songs, dances, myths are widespread among the Papuans. The songs and dances are very simple. The chant is called moon, and the melody varies very little. The cult of ancestors and skulls is of great importance. The Papuans make corvars - images of ancestors. Woodcarving is well developed.
Physico-geographical countries of Oceania
Regional landscape differences make it possible to distinguish four physical and geographical countries in Oceania: Melanesia, Micronesia, New Zealand and Polynesia.
Melanesia
Melanesia includes New Guinea, the Bismarck archipelagos, Luisaida, Solomon Islands, Santa Cruz, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, Fiji and a number of small islands... The islands of Melonesia lie in the alpine geosynclinal zone and were created by mountain building processes of the Neogene and early Quaternary. They are composed of crystalline intrusions and folded sedimentary deposits. The complex of crystalline rocks contains ore minerals: nickel, gold, iron ores, chromites. Oil-bearing basins are confined to sedimentary formations.
Volcanic activity continues to this day. Frequent and strong earthquakes occur.
The relief of the islands is predominantly mountainous. The islands received their modern outlines in the Quaternary period, earlier they were connected with each other, with Australia, with the Malay Archipelago by land bridges, along which the migration of flora and fauna took place. In this regard, the plant and animal world include many Australo-Malayan species.
The mountains rise up to 2000 m and higher in New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and the Bismarck archipelago, which are united under the name of Northern Melanesia. The climate here is constantly hot and very humid; most of the islands are covered with evergreen humid forests.
The climate of South Melanesia is hot, seasonally humid, gile forests cover only the windward slopes of the mountains, savannas appear on dry, leeward slopes.
The largest island in Melanesia and Oceania is New Guinea with an area of 829,300 km2. This island is located entirely in equatorial latitudes. The flora of the island is rich in species and includes 6872 plant species, of which 85% are endemic. The Sredinny ridge stretches across the entire island, the height of which increases to the west up to the Jaya peak (5029 m). A huge amount of moisture condenses on its slopes, brought in by the southeastern trade winds in winter and by the northwestern monsoon in summer. On the high peaks of the mountains, precipitation falls in solid form. The snow line lies at an altitude of 4420 m. There are small glaciers on the tops of the mountains.
Below the eternal snows and stony placers there are tall-grass meadows with rhododendron bushes, even lower is a belt of mountain giles, which at an altitude of 900 m are replaced by wilds of typical giles.
To the south of the Sredinny ridge lies a wide lowland, at the base of which lies a crystalline basement, overlain by marine and alluvial deposits.
On the lowlands, up to 4000-5000 mm of precipitation falls, but its southern regions very dry. The characteristic type of vegetation is savanna with tufts of hard grasses and Australian tree species - bankxia, eucalyptus and acacias.
There are many reed bogs in the floodplains of the Fly and Digul rivers. Mangrove forests grow at river estuaries and along low-lying banks.
New Zealand
New Zealand consists of two large islands - North and South - and a number of smaller ones. It occupies the southernmost position in Oceania. The islands of New Zealand stretch from southwest to northeast and follow a large fault line that extends along the deep waters of Kermadec and Tonga.
New Zealand structures began to form in the Upper Paleozoic. The most important mountain-building movements took place in the Mesozoic era and in the Paleogene, after which a period of tectonic dormancy and peneplanation began. In the Pliocene, new folding and differential vertical movements occurred, crushing the ancient land and defining the modern outlines of the coast.
The development of the organic world took place mainly without replenishment from the outside. The flora of the islands consists of 74% of endemic plants and is relatively poor in species. There are tree ferns (cyatea, dixonia), conifers, myrtle, etc. The fauna of New Zealand is also characterized by high endemism and deep antiquity. Local mammals are represented by two species of bats and one species of rats. There are flightless (kiwi, owl parrot) and flying (nestor parrot) birds. The only representative of the most ancient reptiles (first-serpentines), the tuatara, has survived.
The nature of the North and South Islands is varied.
The southern island (area 150 thousand km2) has a mountainous relief. The Southern Alps stretch along the western half of the island. Their height reaches 3764 m. They have up to 50 glaciers with a total area of about 1000 km2. From the south, the mountains are adjoined by the Otago plateau (1200-1800 m). Large lakes lie in the southwest of Otago. There is a narrow coastal lowland along the western slopes of the Southern Alps, and the coastal plains of Canterbury adjoin the eastern slopes.
Almost the entire South Island lies in a zone of moderately warm, very humid climate. Average winter temperature is 5-7 ° С. Sometimes it drops below 0 ° C. Westerly winds prevail. In summer, the western circulation remains in a weakened form. The temperature is 14 ° C in the south and 17 ° C in the north. Precipitation occurs both in winter and in summer, but the maximum is in summer. In the lowlands, the annual precipitation is 2500 mm, on the slopes of the mountains - 3500 mm. The eastern slopes receive only 700 mm per year.
Full-flowing rivers with uniform flow and snow, glacier and rainwater supply. They flood widely in spring and summer.
The western slopes of the mountains are covered with dense mixed forests, in which evergreen trees (laurel and coniferous) penetrate far to the south. Above 600 m and up to 1000 m there is a belt of evergreen beech forests. Above it is a belt of low stiff-leaved shrubs and mountain meadows. The eastern slopes are covered with thickets of evergreen bushes and beech forests.
The North Island (area 115 thousand km2) is separated from the South by the Cook Strait graben. The relief is dominated by medium-altitude plateaus; lowlands are widely developed along the edges. The Ruahine Ridge stretches along the east coast. The central part of the island is occupied by a volcanic plateau, over which volcanic cones rise. Among them there are active ones: Ruapehu - the tallest in New Zealand, Tarawera. There are many lakes on the plateau, often thermal. The largest of them is Lake Taupo.
The climate of the North Island is subtropical, moderately warm, with very humid winters. Less precipitation in summer. Vegetation is represented by mixed subtropical forests, richer in species composition than on the South Island. Lava plateaus are dominated by thickets of evergreen shrubs, forests appear only on weathered lavas.
Micronesia
Micronesia includes about 1,500 islands: the Kazan, Mariana, Caroline, Marshall, Gilbert and Nauru archipelagos. All islands are small; the largest of these, Guam, has an area of 583 km2.
The western archipelagos are located in the belt of geosynclinal structures of the Pacific Ocean floor and are the tops of volcanoes. The relief of the islands is mountainous (altitude from 400 to 1000 m). The islands of eastern Micronesia are coral. They rarely rise more than 1.5 - 2.5 m above the water. Many of them are in the form of typical atolls.
The islands lie in latitudes from equatorial to subtropical. Climate northern islands as hot and humid as the southern ones. The greatest amount of precipitation (1500-2000 mm) falls on the eastern slopes of the mountainous islands, upwind in relation to the northeastern trade winds. Previously, the slopes were covered with dense moist evergreen tropical forests, but now these forests have greatly reduced in area. The leeward slopes of the islands are occupied by grass savannas. The inner lagoons are flanked by mangroves.
Polynesia
Polynesia unites the islands lying generally east of the 180th meridian, between 30 ° N. NS. and 30 ° S. w .: Hawaiian, Phoenix and Tokelau archipelagos, Samoa, Cook Islands, Tubuau, Tahiti, Tuamotu and others. The islands are the tops of basalt volcanoes, mostly decapitated by weathering and abrasion, covered by reef limestones. There are also coral islands - the product of the ocean, madrepore corals and calcareous algae.
The name Polynesia, meaning many islands, was first used by Charles de Brosses in 1756, and was originally applied to all of the islands in the Pacific. Jules Dumont D'Urville in 1831, in a lecture to the Geographical Society of Paris, proposed a restriction on its use, and also introduced the terms Micronesia and Melanesia. This division into three different Pacific subregions is still used today.
Geographically, Polynesia can be described as a triangle with corners in Hawaii, Aoteaora (New Zealand) and Rapa Nui (Easter Island). Other major island groups located within the Polynesian Triangle are Samoa, Tonga, the various island chains that form the Cook Islands and French Polynesia. Niue is a rare secluded island nation near the center of Polynesia. Island groups outside this large triangle include Tuvalu and the French territory of Wallis and Futuna. There are also small enclaves of isolated Polynesians in Papua New Guinea, Solomons and Vanuatu. Basically, however, it is an anthropological term applied to one of the three parts of Oceania (others call Micronesia and Melanesia), whose population generally belongs to the same ethnocultural family as a result of centuries of sea travel.
Polynesia is divided into two distinct cultural groups, Eastern Polynesian and Western Polynesia. The culture of Western Polynesia is due to its large population. She has strong institutions of marriage, and a well-developed judicial, monetary and trading tradition. It includes the Tonga, Niue, Samoa and Polynesian out-of-border groups. Eastern Polynesian cultures are highly adapted to smaller islands and atolls, including the Cook Islands, Tahiti, Tuamotus, Marques, Hawaii and Easter Island. However, the large islands of New Zealand were first inhabited by the Oriental Polynesians, who adapted their culture to a non-tropical environment. Religion, agriculture, fishing, weather forecasting, canoeing (similar to modern catamarans), construction and navigation were highly developed skills because the population of the entire island depended on them. Trade was divided into two types: luxury and household items. Many small islands could suffer severe famine if their gardens were poisoned with salt from the storm surge of a hurricane. In such cases, fishing, the primary source of protein, would not alleviate the loss of energy from the food. The sailors in particular were highly respected, and each island maintained a home of navigation, with a canoe development area. The settlements of the Polynesians were of two categories, villages and towns. The size of the inhabited island determined whether or not a village was built. Large volcanic islands usually had villages, divided into many zones, across the island. Food and resources were more abundant and so these settlements of four to five houses (usually with gardens) were established so that there was no overlap between the zones. Villages, on the other hand, were based on the coasts of smaller islands and consisted of thirty or more buildings... Usually these villages were fortified with walls and palisades made of stone and wood. However, New Zealand is showing the opposite; large volcanic islands with fortified villages. Due to the relatively large number of competitive Christian missionary sects in the islands, many Polynesian groups have adopted Christianity. Polynesian languages are all members of the Oceanic language family, a subgroup of the Austronesian language family.
The organic world is represented by reef-loving plants and animals not only on land, but also on the sea. Along the outer edge of the atoll, seaweed, foraminifera, sponges, sea urchins and starfish, crabs and shrimps. Behind the outer graben of the atoll, on powerful calcareous soils, terrestrial vegetation appears: thickets of evergreen xerophytic shrubs, forests of coconut palms, pandanus trees, banana thickets and groves of breadfruit trees.
The largest archipelago of Polynesia is the Hawaiian Islands, stretched for 2500 km. The Hawaiian archipelago consists of 24 islands with a total area of 16,700 km2. The largest islands are Hawaii, Maui, Oahu and Kauai. Volcanic activity continues only on the island of Hawaii; on other large islands, it stopped at the beginning of the Quaternary period.
Most of the islands are stretched out in the tropical climate zone, under the continuous influence of the northeastern trade winds. The amount of precipitation on the windward slopes exceeds 4000 mm, on the leeward - no more than 700 mm per year. High air temperatures are characteristic. The northwestern islands of the archipelago lie in the subtropical zone. They are distant from the cold California Current and therefore have higher average seasonal temperatures. Precipitation is cyclonic, maximum in winter. Annual precipitation is about 1000 mm.
The flora of Hawaii is highly endemic (up to 93% of species) and monotonous, therefore it is distinguished as a special Hawaiian subregion of the Paleotropics. It contains gymnosperms, ficuses, epiphytic orchids. There are three types of palm trees. The mountains are characterized by seasonally humid mixed forests up to an altitude of 700 m), constantly humid evergreen forests (up to 1200 m), tropical mountain gileies (up to 3000 m). Savannahs do not rise on slopes higher than 300-600 m.
The islands have a very rich avifauna (67 genera). More than half are sedentary and nest on the islands. In addition to birds, there is one species of bat, several species of lizards, and beetles.
The current state of nature and its protection
The island landscapes are extremely vulnerable to economic activity of people. Accidental or deliberate introduction of alien organisms - plants or animals - to the islands is very harmful.
The state of the natural environment and the irrational use of land, the felling of valuable tree species, the pollution of coastal water bodies and the direct destruction of the island's land are worsening.
The nature of biogenic islands is the most vulnerable. The vulnerability of their flora and fauna, as well as the small volume of fresh water and surface land, create great difficulties for the preservation of the natural environment.
With the rapidly growing population, maintaining the necessary sanitation standards on the islands becomes a difficult task, especially since it is not easy to find a suitable place for disposal of waste and sewage.
The mining of phosphorites on some islands is causing great devastation. As a result, people are creating deserts, the restoration of which is practically inaccessible to the young states of Oceania.
Tourists - lovers of spearfishing and collectors of living souvenirs - cause great harm to the nature of the islands. Already, many states have passed laws prohibiting the breaking of coral, the collection of shells, the extraction of pearls, as well as the hunting of birds and animals.
Island groups
The next are islands and island groups, or nations or subnational territories, which have a native Polynesian culture. Some of the islands of Polynesian origin are outside the common triangle that geographically defines the area.
American Samoa (overseas territory of the United States)
Anuta (in Solomon Islands)
Cook Islands (self-governing state in association with New Zealand)
Easter Island (part of Chile, named Rapa Nui in Rapa Nui)
Emai (in Vanuatu)
French Polynesia ("foreign country", territory of France)
Hawaii (State of the United States)
Kapingamarangi (in the United States of Micronesia)
Mele (in Vanuatu)
New Zealand (named Aotearova in Maori, commonly associated with Australasia)
Niue (a self-governing state in a free association with New Zealand)
Nigeria (in Papua New Guinea)
Nukumanu (in Papua New Guinea)
Nikuoro (in the United States of Micronesia)
Ontong Java (in Solomon Islands)
Pileni (in Solomon Islands)
Rennell (in Solomon Islands)
Rotuma (in Fiji)
Samoa (independent nation)
Sikaina (in the Solomon Islands)
Village Boy Island (politically part of American Samoa)
Takuu (in Papua New Guinea)
Tikopia (in the Solomon Islands)
Tokelau (New Zealand overseas dependency)
Tonga (independent nation)
Tuvalu (independent nation)
Wallis and Futuna (overseas territory of France).
Sources of
Wikipedia - The Free Encyclopedia, WikiPedia
oceaniasport.info - Oceania
stranymira.com - Countries
polynesia.ru - Polynesia
The island groups and archipelagos of the western and central parts are united into a geographical area under the general name Oceania. Historically, all the islands were divided into four ethnographic and geographical areas: (Tonga, Samoa, Cook, Hawaiian, Easter Island, etc.), Melanesia (island, Bismarck archipelago, islands, etc.), (, Mariana Islands, etc.), New. Most of the islands of Oceania are concentrated in between 10 ° S. NS. and 20 ° N. NS.
A great contribution to the study of the nature and population of Oceania was made by the Russian scientist N.N.Miklouho-Maclay. He studied the life of the peoples of the island of New Guinea, left descriptions of the nature of the coastal territories. NN Miklouho-Maclay's scientific research was associated with his conviction of the need to protect backward and oppressed peoples. At the very end of the XIX century. on the Hawaiian Islands lived and worked our fellow countryman, a native of the Mogilev province NK Sudzilovsky.
Geological structure and relief of Oceania
Remember how mainland, volcanic and coral islands were formed. The largest mainland islands in Oceania are New Guinea and New Zealand. Volcanism is a characteristic process in this region. The Hawaiian Islands are home to the Kilauea Volcano, one of the most active active volcanoes on Earth. Volcanic islands form giant island arcs. They have an elongated configuration. Oceania abounds in coral islands - reefs and atolls, which form entire archipelagos (Gilbert Islands, Tuamotu).
Oceania climate
The islands of Oceania are found mainly in the equatorial, subequatorial and. Only the northern part of the Hawaiian archipelago enters the subtropics, while the southern part of New Zealand is located in the temperate zone. In Oceania, there are two climatic regions: trade wind and monsoon. The climate of Oceania is characterized by small temperature fluctuations: from + 30 ° С during the day to +21 ° С at night. Winds from the ocean soften the heat. It is never too cold or too hot here, so the climate of Oceania is considered the most comfortable on the globe. The main directions are from east to west. They promote the dispersal of organisms.
Oceania is dominated by sea air masses. In areas where monsoon circulation prevails, precipitation falls between 3000-4000 mm per year. The Hawaiian Islands, on the windward slopes, receive over 12,090 mm of precipitation per year. This is one of the wettest places on Earth. The distribution of precipitation is associated with the presence of mountains. On the island of Hawaii, there are areas where less than 200 mm a year falls per year.
Tropical hurricanes are not among the very dangerous and destructive natural phenomena. They destroy plantations, destroy dwellings, and sometimes the emerging waves wash away all living things. The local population is wary of settling on the Cook Islands and Tuamotu, where hurricanes are often observed. The subtropical and temperate climate is typical for New Zealand, where in winter there are frosts down to -13 ° C, and there is snow in the mountains.
Flora and fauna of Oceania
The isolation of the island's landmass has the greatest impact on it and. The diversity of the world of plants and animals depends on the age of the islands, their size and distance from the mainland. It is poorest on the coral islands, where fresh water is scarce and soils are poor. Only a few dozen plant species grow on them. On the islands of Oceania, mainly in Melanesia, the most ancient plants have been preserved, for example, tree ferns, reaching 8-15 m in height. Rich and peculiar vegetable world New Zealand (pines, palms).
The flora and fauna of Oceania is distinguished by two features. Rare species that are not found on the mainland have survived here. At the same time, on many islands, entire groups of organisms that are common on the mainland are almost completely absent. Many of the flowering plant species found on land are absent, but spore plants are widespread. The islands have preserved ancient plants that grew on the mainland in the geological past (podocarpus, agathis (kauri), etc.).
The fauna of the islands is poor. There are no mammals on many islands, with the exception of rats, mice, goats and cats brought here. There are many seabirds: petrels, albatrosses, gulls, which nest here and hatch chicks. Weed chicken, a representative of the Australian fauna, is found on the island of New Guinea.
In New Zealand, the oldest flightless bird, the kiwi, is very cautious, living in dense grasses, the Maori shepherd boy. The kiwi bird is featured on the coat of arms of New Zealand. In New and New Zealand, there are rare species of parrots - the kakapo, or owl, and the kea parrot with a strong sharp and curved beak. The primordial tuatara survived on one of the islets of New Zealand.
On some islands only 5-7 species of seabirds nest. At the same time, the number of bird species in New Guinea is more than 100, the fauna of insects is rich (more than 3700 species).
Minerals of Oceania
Mineral resources on the islands of Oceania are extremely unevenly distributed. The economy is conducted where there are valuable minerals. So, in New Caledonia there are up to 25% of the world reserves of nickel, on Christmas Island there are reserves of phosphates. Among the states of Oceania, Papua New Guinea stands out, where there are gold, silver, and explored reserves.
Oceania's economic activities
The population of Oceania is about 10 million people. There are several hypotheses about the ways of settling Oceania. Most scientists believe that Oceania was inhabited by people from Southeast Asia many millennia ago. According to the hypothesis of Thor, Heyerdahl was settled by immigrants from America.
The inhabitants of Oceania were skilled sailors and shipbuilders. They sailed thousands of kilometers from their native islands. The modern inhabitants of Oceania are engaged in growing coconut trees, bananas, cocoa, coffee. The traditional trade is fishing. The nature and life of the people of Oceania are largely subject to natural catastrophic disasters (tropical hurricanes, tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanism).
On many islands of volcanic and continental origin, non-ferrous metal ores, coal are mined, and phosphorite deposits are being developed. Every year the states of Oceania become objects of international tourism. The nature of the islands changes under the influence of human economic activity. On the site of the destroyed natural plantations, where sugar cane, pineapples, bananas, tea, coffee, rubber and other crops are cultivated.
Oceania Political Map
Modern political map Oceania was formed as a result of a long struggle between the colonial powers for the division of oceanic archipelagos among themselves. Until the early 60s. XX century in Oceania there was one independent state - New Zealand. By the end of the twentieth century. more than 10 independent states... A number of islands and archipelagos remain politically and economically dependent on the world. Most of the Hawaiian Islands archipelago has been the 50th US state since 1959.
The formation of the nature of Oceania is influenced by the Pacific Ocean, its remoteness from other continents, and its location in tropical latitudes. The basis of the economy of most countries in Oceania is agriculture. Mining operations are carried out on many islands.
Oceania is a part of the world, which is a separate geopolitical region, which consists of many islands and atolls located in the western and central Pacific Ocean.
Geographical position
The islands of Oceania are located between the temperate latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere and the subtropical latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. Often in geography, Oceania is considered together with Australia.
There is even a geographical name - Australia and Oceania. The total area of Oceania is 1.24 million km2. The population is 10.6 million people.
Oceania is divided into three geographic region- Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia. Oceania is washed by numerous seas - the Coral, Solomon, New Guinea, Tasman seas, the Koro and Fiji seas, which belong to the Pacific Ocean basin, and the Arafura Sea (Indian Ocean).
Oceania climate
Most of Oceania has a tropical climate. Most of the islands of Oceania are characterized by heavy rainfall. On the islands that are located closer to the tropical belt, the average annual temperature is 23 ° C, on the islands near the equator - 27 ° C.
Oceania's climate is also influenced by currents such as La Niña and El Niño. Most of the islands in Oceania are negatively affected by active volcanoes, tsunamis and typhoons.
This region is characterized by a sharp change in weather conditions - droughts are replaced by torrential rains.
Oceania population
Most of the population of the islands of Oceania is represented by indigenous people, including Micronesians, Polynesians, Papuans. Polynesians are mixed racial types - they show the features of Caucasians and Mongoloids.
The largest Polynesian peoples are Hawaiians, Maori, Tongans, Tahitians. Each nationality has its own language, which is represented by an almost complete absence of consonants.
The racial type of the Melanesians is the Australoids. The linguistic fragmentation of the Melanesian tribes is very large - a frequent occurrence is that the inhabitants of neighboring villages cannot understand each other. Papuans inhabit some regions of Indonesia and New Guinea.
All Papuan languages are very similar to each other. They are based on the English language, therefore, often, even residents of remote regions speak English perfectly.
Economy
The vast majority of countries in Oceania have a very weak economy. The reasons for this are factors such as the remoteness of the islands from developed superpowers, limited natural resources, shortage of personnel.
Many countries are in complete economic dependence on Australia and the United States. The economy is based on agriculture. Among the most common crops are coconut palms, breadfruit, bananas. Some states have fishing fleets.
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Australia and Oceania on hemisphere map
Australia and Oceania on world map
Oceania- the collective name for a vast cluster of islands and atolls in the central and western Pacific Ocean. The boundaries of Oceania are conditional. The island is considered to be the western border, the eastern one. Typically, Oceania does not include Australia, islands and archipelagos South-East Asia, Of the Far East and North America. In the section of geography, regional studies, Oceania is studied by an independent discipline - ocean studies.
Geographical position
Physical map of Australia and Oceania
Regions of Australia and Oceania
Australia and Oceania Political Map
Oceania is the world's largest cluster of islands located in the southwestern and central Pacific Ocean, between the subtropical latitudes of the Northern and temperate Southern hemispheres. When dividing the entire land mass into parts of the world, Oceania is usually united with Australia into a single part of the world, Australia and Oceania, although sometimes it stands out as an independent part of the world.
Geographically, Oceania is subdivided into several regions: (in the northwest), (in the west), and (in the east); sometimes isolated.
The total area of the islands of Oceania, the largest of which is, is 1.26 million km² (together with Australia 8.52 million km²), the population is about 10.7 million people. (together with Australia 32.6 million people). Excluding Australia, Oceania in terms of total area and total population is comparable to the African state.
The islands of Oceania are washed by numerous Pacific seas (Coral Sea, Tasman Sea, Fiji Sea, Koro Sea, Solomon Sea, New Guinea Sea, Philippine Sea) and Indian Oceans (Arafura Sea).
The equator and the international date line pass through Oceania. It is a broken line, most of which runs along the 180 ° meridian.
Sea currents
Throughout Oceania, along the equator, there are warm North trade winds, South trade winds and counter-trade currents. In the southwestern part of Oceania, the warm East Australian Current passes. Oceania is characterized by the absence of cold sea currents (with the exception of the Pacific Ocean to the southeast of New Zealand), which largely determines the climate of this region.
Independent states
Main article: List of States and Dependent Territories of Oceania
| Name of region, countries and country flag |
Square (km²) |
Population (estimate as of 1 July 2002) |
Population density (persons / km²) |
Capital | Currency unit |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Australia | 7 692 024 | 21 050 000 | 2,5 | Australian dollar (AUD) | |
| 12 190 | 196 178 | 16,1 | cotton wool (VUV) | ||
| 462 840 | 5 172 033 | 11,2 | kin (PGK) | ||
| 28 450 | 494 786 | 17,4 | Solomon Islands dollar (SBD) | ||
| 18 274 | 856 346 | 46,9 | Fijian dollar (FJD) | ||
| 811 | 96 335 | 118,8 | Australian dollar (AUD) | ||
| 21 | 12 329 | 587,1 | No | Australian dollar (AUD) | |
| 268 680 | 4 108 037 | 14,5 | New Zealand dollar (NZD) | ||
| 2 935 | 178 631 | 60,7 | tala (WST) | ||
| 748 | 106 137 | 141,9 | paanga (TOP) | ||
| 26 | 11 146 | 428,7 | Funafuti | Australian dollar (AUD) |
Dependent Territories and Trusteeship Territories
| Name of region, country and country flag |
Square (km²) |
Population (estimate as of 1 July 2002) |
Population density (persons / km²) |
Administrative center | Currency unit |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Australia | |||||
| (Australia) | 5 | uninhabited | - | - | |
| Coral Sea Islands (Australia) | 7 | uninhabited | - | - | |
| Norfolk (Australia) | 35 | 1 866 | 53,3 | Kingston | Australian dollar (AUD) |
| Western new guinea ( ) | 424 500 | 2 646 489 | 6 | , | Indonesian rupiah (IDR) |
| () | 18 575 | 207 858 | 10,9 | ||
| () | 541 | 160 796 | 292,9 | US dollar (USD) | |
| 181 | 73 630 | 406,8 | US dollar (USD) | ||
| 458 | 19 409 | 42,4 | US dollar (USD) | ||
| Northern Mariana Islands () | 463,63 | 77 311 | 162,1 | Saipan | US dollar (USD) |
| Wake () | 7,4 | - | - | - | |
| 702 | 135 869 | 193,5 | US dollar (USD) | ||
| () | 199 | 68 688 | 345,2 | , Fagatogo | US dollar (USD) |
| Baker () | 1,24 | uninhabited | - | - | |
| () | 28 311 | 1 211 537 | 72,83 | US dollar (USD) | |
| Jarvis () | 4,45 | uninhabited | - | - | |
| () | 2,52 | - | - | - | |
| Kingman () | 0,01 | uninhabited | - | - | |
| () | 6,23 | - | - | - | |
| () | 261,46 | 2 134 | 8,2 | New Zealand dollar (NZD) | |
| () | 236,7 | 20 811 | 86,7 | New Zealand dollar (NZD) | |
| Palmyra () | 6,56 | - | - | - | |
| Isla de Pasqua () | 163,6 | 3791 | 23,1 | Anga Roa | Chilean Peso (CLP) |
| () | 47 | 67 | 1,4 | Adamstown | New Zealand dollar (NZD) |
| () | 10 | 1 431 | 143,1 | - | New Zealand dollar (NZD) |
| () | 274 | 15 585 | 56,9 | pacific franc (XPF) | |
| French polynesia () | 4 167 | 257 847 | 61,9 | pacific franc (XPF) | |
| () | 1,62 | uninhabited | - | - | |
Geology
Mount Jaya in Western New Guinea (Indonesia) - highest point Oceania
From the point of view of geology, Oceania is not a continent: only Australia, and have a continental origin, formed on the site of the hypothetical continent of Gondwana. In the past, these islands were a single land, but as a result of the rise in the level of the World Ocean, a significant part of the surface was under water. The relief of these islands is mountainous and highly dissected. For example, the highest mountains of Oceania, including Mount Jaya (5029 m), are located on the island.
Most of the islands in Oceania are of volcanic origin: some of them are the tops of large underwater volcanoes, some of which are still highly volcanic (for example, the Hawaiian Islands).
Other islands have their origin, being atolls, which were formed as a result of the formation of coral structures around submerged volcanoes (for example, the Gilbert Islands, Tuamotu). A distinctive feature of such islands are large lagoons, which are surrounded by numerous islets, or motu, whose average height does not exceed three meters. In Oceania, there is an atoll with the largest lagoon in the world - Kwajalein in the Marshall Islands archipelago. Despite the fact that its land area is only 16.32 km² (or 6.3 sq. Miles), the area of the lagoon is 2,174 km² (or 839.3 sq. Miles). The largest atoll in terms of land area is Christmas Island (or Kiritimati) in the Line Archipelago (or Central Polynesian Sporades) - 322 km². However, among the atolls, there is also a special type - an uplifted (or uplifted) atoll, which is a limestone plateau up to 50-60 m above sea level. This type of island has no lagoon or traces of its past existence. Examples of such atolls are Banaba.
The relief and geological structure of the Pacific Ocean floor in the Oceania region has a complex structure. From the peninsula (part of it) to New Zealand, there is a large number of basins of the marginal seas, deep oceanic trenches (Tonga, Kermadec, Bougainville), which form a geosynclinal belt characterized by active volcanism, seismicity and contrasting relief.
On most of the islands of Oceania, there are no minerals, only the largest of them are being developed: nickel (), oil and gas (island,), copper (Bougainville island), gold (New Guinea,), phosphates (on most islands, deposits are almost or have already been developed, for example, in, on the islands of Banaba, Makatea). In the past, decomposed seabird droppings were actively developed on many islands in the region and were used as nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers. On the ocean floor of the exclusive economic zone of a number of countries, there are large accumulations of iron-manganese nodules, as well as cobalt, but at the moment no development is being carried out due to economic inexpediency.
Climate
Space shot of Kwajalein Atoll
Coast of Caroline Atoll (Line Islands, Kiribati)
Oceania is located within several climatic zones: equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate. Most of the islands have a tropical climate. The subequatorial climate prevails on the islands near Australia and Asia, as well as to the east of the 180th meridian in the equatorial zone, the equatorial climate to the west of the 180th meridian, the subtropical climate north and south of the tropics, and temperate in most of the South Island in New Zealand.
The climate of the islands of Oceania is determined mainly by the trade winds, so most of them receive heavy rainfall. Average annual precipitation ranges from 1,500 to 4,000 mm, although on some islands (in particular due to the relief and on the leeward side), the climate may be drier or more humid. One of the wettest places on the planet is located in Oceania: on the eastern slope of Mount Waialeale on the island of Kauai, up to 11,430 mm of precipitation falls annually (the absolute maximum was reached in 1982: then 16,916 mm fell). Near the tropics, the average temperature is about 23 ° C, at the equator - 27 ° C, with little difference between the hottest and coldest months.
The climate of the Oceania islands is also greatly influenced by such anomalies as the El Niño and La Niña currents. During El Niño, the intertropical convergence zone moves north towards the equator; during La Niño, it moves south towards the equator. In the latter case, severe drought is observed on the islands, in the first case, heavy rains.
Most of the islands of Oceania are subject to the destructive effects of natural disasters: volcanic eruptions (Hawaiian Islands, New Hebrides), earthquakes, tsunamis, cyclones accompanied by typhoons and heavy rains, and droughts. Many of them lead to significant material and human losses. For example, the tsunami in July 1999 killed 2,200 people.
There are glaciers on the South Island in New Zealand and on the island high in the mountains, but due to the process of global warming, their area is gradually decreasing.
Soils and hydrology
Stream on the island of Efate (Vanuatu)
Due to the different climatic conditions, the soils of Oceania are very diverse. The soils of the atolls are highly alkaline, of coral origin, and very poor. They are usually porous, which makes them very poor at retaining moisture, and also contain very little organic and mineral substances with the exception of calcium, sodium and magnesium. The soils of volcanic islands are generally of volcanic origin and are highly fertile. On large mountainous islands, there are red-yellow, mountain lateritic, mountain-meadow, yellow-brown soils, yellow soils, and red soils.
Large rivers are found only on the South and North Islands of New Zealand, as well as on the island on which the largest rivers of Oceania, Sepik (1126 km) and Fly (1050 km) are located. The largest river in New Zealand is the Waikato (425 km). Rivers are primarily fed by rainwater, although in New Zealand and New Guinea rivers are also fed by melting glaciers and snow. On the atolls, rivers are completely absent due to the high porosity of the soils. Instead, rainwater seeps through the soil to form a lens of slightly brackish water that can be reached by digging a well. Larger islands (usually of volcanic origin) have small streams of water that flow towards the ocean.
The largest number of lakes, including thermal ones, is located in New Zealand, where there are also geysers. On other islands in Oceania, lakes are rare.
Flora and fauna
Kiwi is a symbol of New Zealand
Oceania is part of the Paleotropic Vegetation Region, with three subregions distinguished: Melanesian-Micronesian, Hawaiian, and New Zealand. Among the most widespread plants in Oceania, the coconut palm and breadfruit are distinguished, which play an important role in the life of local residents: fruits are used for food, wood is a source of heat, a building material, copra is produced from the oily endosperm of coconut palm nuts, which forms the basis of the export of the countries of this region. A large number of epiphytes (ferns, orchids) also grow on the islands. The largest number of endemics (both representatives of flora and fauna) is recorded in New Zealand and the Hawaiian Islands, while the number of species, genera and families of plants decreases from west to east.
The fauna of Oceania belongs to the Polynesian faunal region with a subregion of the Hawaiian Islands. The fauna of New Zealand stands out as an independent region, New Guinea - in the Papuan subregion of the Australian region. New Zealand and New Guinea are the most diverse. On the small islands of Oceania, primarily the atolls, mammals are almost never found: many of them are inhabited only by the small rat. But the local avifauna is very rich. Most of the atolls are home to bird colonies where seabirds nest. Among the representatives of the fauna of New Zealand, the most famous are the kiwi birds, which have become the national symbol of the country. Other endemics of the country are kea (lat.Nestor notabilis, or nestor), kakapo (Latin Strigops habroptilus, or owl parrot), takahe (lat.Notoronis hochstelteri, or wingless sultana). All the islands of Oceania are home to a large number of lizards, snakes and insects.
During the European colonization of the islands, alien species of plants and animals were introduced to many of them, which negatively affected the local flora and fauna.
The region has a large number of protected areas, many of which occupy significant areas. For example, the Phoenix Islands in the Republic of Kiribati have been the world's largest marine reserve since January 28, 2008 (with an area of 410,500 km²).
History
Main article: Oceania history
Pre-colonial period
Island and nearby islands Names of Russians on the map of the tropical Pacific Ocean. A source:.
Letter from N. N. Miklukho-Maclay to the Chief of a squadron of ships in the Pacific Ocean with a proposal to acquire areas on the islands of the Pacific Ocean, convenient for coal storage, March 30, 1873.
In the Russian Empire, after the discovery of the northwestern coast of America by V. Bering in 1741, merchant companies, with the support of the Siberian administration, organized about 90 fishing expeditions to the Pacific Ocean until the end of the 18th century. The Russian-American Company (1799-1867) was established by the state to deal with administrative matters and trade in Alaska and the Pacific Ocean. In May 1804, two ships "Nadezhda" and "Neva" approached the Hawaiian Islands. These were the first Russian ships to sail around the world. In the heart of the tropical Pacific Ocean there are atolls and islands of Russians, Suvorov, Kutuzov, Lisyansky, Bellingshausen, Barclay de Tolly, Krusenstern reef and many others. Another distinctive aspect of all the travels that took place is mutual friendliness in the history of meetings between Russians and the peoples of the Pacific Ocean.
Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay's map of Russia's alleged territorial acquisitions in the Pacific Ocean, filed in a letter to Alexander III, December 1883.
Letter to the Main Naval Headquarters from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs regarding the proposal of NN Miklouho-Maclay on Russian acquisitions in the Pacific Ocean with a resolution “... consider this matter finally finished. Refuse Miklouho-Maclay ", December 1886.
As the first European who settled on the shores of the Astrolabe Bay in New Guinea and explored this area, N. N. Miklukho Maclay repeatedly proposed to peacefully occupy or take under Russian patronage a number of islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Russian scientist sent letters to the Naval Ministry, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, personally to Emperor Alexander III.
Colonial period
Ships of the English traveler James Cook and canoes of the natives in Matawai Bay on the island of Tahiti (French Polynesia), painter William Hodges, 1776
In the period from the 16th to the 18th century, the period of the study of Oceania by Europeans continued, who gradually began to populate the islands. However, the process of European colonization proceeded very slowly, since the region did not arouse much interest among foreigners due to the lack of natural resources, and negatively affected the local population: many diseases were introduced that had never been in Oceania, and this led to epidemics, in as a result of which a significant part of the natives perished. At the same time, there was a Christianization of the inhabitants, who worshiped numerous deities and spirits.
In the 18th-19th centuries, the islands of Oceania were divided between the colonial powers, primarily the British Empire, and (later the German Empire joined them). Of particular interest among the Europeans was the possibility of creating plantations on the islands (coconut trees for the production of copra, sugar cane), as well as the slave trade (the so-called "Hunting blackbirds", involving the recruitment of islanders to work on plantations).
In 1907 it became a dominion, but formally it became a completely independent state only in 1947. After the First World War, the first political organizations began to emerge ("May" in Western Samoa, "Fijian Youth" in Fiji), fighting for the independence of the colonies. During World War II, Oceania was one of the theaters of military operations, where many battles took place (mainly between Japanese and American troops).
After the war, the region experienced some improvements in the economy, but in most colonies it was one-sided (the predominance of the plantation economy and the almost complete absence of industry). Since the 1960s, the process of decolonization began: in 1962 it gained independence, in 1963 - West Irian, in 1968 -. Subsequently, most of the colonies became independent.
Postcolonial period
After gaining independence, the majority of the countries of Oceania retained serious economic, political and social problems, the solution of which is carried out with the participation of international organizations(including the UN) and in the framework of regional cooperation. Despite the decolonization process in the 20th century, some islands still remain dependent to one degree or another: New Caledonia A portrait of a representative of the indigenous people of New Zealand - Maori
The indigenous inhabitants of Oceania are Polynesians, Micronesians, Melanesians and Papuans.
The Polynesians living in the countries of Polynesia are of a mixed racial type, combining the features of the Australoid and Mongoloid races. The largest peoples of Polynesia are Hawaiians, Samoans, Tahitians, Tongans, Maori, Marquesas, Rapanui and others. Native languages belong to the Polynesian subgroup of the Austronesian family of languages: Hawaiian, Samoan, Tahitian, Tongan, Maori, Marquis, Rapanui, and others. The characteristic features of Polynesian languages are a small number of sounds, especially consonants, an abundance of vowels.
Micronesians live in the countries of Micronesia. The largest peoples are the Carolinians, Kiribati, Marshalls, Nauru, Chamorro and others. Native languages belong to the Micronesian group of the Austronesian family of languages: Kiribati, Caroline, Kusai, Marshall, Nauruan and others. The Palau and Chamorro languages belong to West Malay-Polynesian, and Yapi forms a separate branch in the Oceanian languages, which also includes the Micronesian languages.
Melanesians live in the countries of Melanesia. Racial type - Australoid, with a small Mongoloid element, close to the Papuans of New Guinea. Melanesians speak Melanesian languages, however, their languages, unlike Micronesian and Polynesian, do not form a separate genetic grouping, and linguistic fragmentation is very large, so that people from neighboring villages may not understand each other.
Papuans inhabit the island and some areas. In their anthropological type, they are close to the Melanesians, but differ from them in language. Not all Papuan languages are related to each other. The national language of the Papuans in Papua New Guinea is the English-based Tok Pisin Creole. According to various sources, the peoples and languages of the Papuans number from 300 to 800. At the same time, there are difficulties in establishing the difference between a separate language and a dialect.
Many languages of Oceania are on the verge of extinction. In everyday life, they are increasingly being replaced by English and French.
The situation of the indigenous population in the countries of Oceania is different. If, for example, in the Hawaiian Islands their share is very low, then in New Zealand the Maori make up up to 15% of the country's population. The share of Polynesians located in Micronesia is about 21.3%. The majority of the population is made up of numerous Papuan peoples, although the proportion of immigrants from other islands of the region is also high.
In New Zealand and Hawaii, the majority of the population is Europeans, whose share is also high in (34%) and French Polynesia (12%). On the islands, 38.2% of the population is represented by Indo-Fijians, the descendants of Indian contract workers brought to the islands by the British in the 19th century.
Recently, in the countries of Oceania, the proportion of immigrants from (mainly Chinese and Filipinos) has been increasing. For example, in the Northern Mariana Islands, the Filipinos account for 26.2% and the Chinese for 22.1%.
The population of Oceania is mainly Christian, adhering to either the Protestant or Catholic branch.
Economy
Economy of Oceania. Donation and economic unions.
Oceania is the name of a region of the world made up of island groups in the Central and South Pacific Ocean. It covers over 8.5 million km². Some of the countries that make up Oceania include Australia, New Zealand, Tuvalu, Samoa, Tonga, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, Palau, Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Kiribati and Nauru. Oceania also includes several dependent territories such as American Samoa, Johnston, and French Polynesia.
Physical geography of Oceania
In terms of physical geography, the islands of Oceania are often divided into four different sub-regions based on the geological processes that played an important role in their physical development. The first one is. It stands out because of its location in the middle of the Indo-Australian Plate, and the lack of mountain building during its development. Instead, Australia's current physical landscape features have been shaped largely by erosion.
The second region of Oceania consists of islands located at the collision boundaries between the crustal plates. They are found in the South Pacific. For example, on the collision line of the Indo-Australian and Pacific plates, and includes places such as New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. The North Pacific also has similar landscape types along the border of the Eurasian and Pacific plates. Collisions of tectonic plates are responsible for the formation of mountains, such as in New Zealand, which rise more than 3000 m above sea level.
Volcanic islands such as Fiji are the third category of landscape type found in Oceania. These islands tend to rise from the seabed in hotspots in the Pacific Ocean basin. Most of these areas are made up of very small islands with high mountain ranges.
Finally, island coral reefs and atolls such as Tuval are the last type of landscape in Oceania. Atolls are specifically responsible for the formation of low-lying land areas, some with closed lagoons.
Oceania climate
Köppen climate map of Oceania
Most of Oceania is divided into two climatic zones: temperate and. Most of Australia and all of New Zealand is in the temperate zone, and most of the Pacific island territories are considered tropical. The temperate regions of Oceania have high rainfall levels, cold winters, and warm or hot summers. The tropical regions of Oceania are hot and humid all year round.
In addition to these climatic zones Most of the countries in Oceania are affected by continuous trade winds and sometimes hurricanes (called tropical cyclones), which historically have caused catastrophic damage to the countries and islands of the region.
Flora and fauna of Oceania
Since most of Oceania lies in the tropical or temperate zone, abundant rainfall helps support the growth of humid and temperate rainforests throughout the region. Rainforests are found in some island countries near the tropics, while temperate rainforests are found in New Zealand. Both types of forest are home to many species of animals and plants, making Oceania one of the most biologically diverse regions in the world.
It is important to note that not all areas of Oceania receive heavy rainfall and some parts of the region are arid or semi-arid. Australia, for example, has large tracts of dry land that support a low flora diversity. In addition, El Niño has caused frequent droughts in recent decades in Northern Australia and Papua New Guinea.
The fauna of Oceania, as well as its flora, is also extremely. Since most of the region is made up of islands, unique species of birds, animals and insects have evolved in complete isolation. The presence of coral reefs such as the Great Barrier reef and Kingman Reef are also areas of high concentration of flora and fauna, and are considered biodiversity hotspots.
Oceania population
Oceania has a population of about 40 million, with the bulk of the people (about 30 million) living in Australia and New Zealand, while Papua New Guinea has a population of about 8 million. The rest of Oceania's population is scattered across various islands included in the region.
Like population distribution, urbanization and industrialization are also unevenly distributed across Oceania. About 89% of the region's urban areas are in Australia and New Zealand, and these countries also have the best infrastructure. Australia, in particular, possesses many reserves of minerals and raw materials sources of energy, and also generates most of the region's economy. The rest of Oceania and, in particular, the Pacific island states are very poorly developed. Some islands are rich, but most are not. In addition, some of island states have a shortage of clean drinking water or food.
Agriculture is also important in Oceania and there are three types that are common in the region. These include subsistence agriculture, plantation crops, and capital intensive agriculture. Subsistence agriculture occurs in most of the Pacific Islands and is carried out to support local communities. Cassava, taro, yams, and sweet potatoes are the most common foods in this type of agriculture. Plantation crops are planted in the middle tropical islands while capital intensive agriculture is practiced only in Australia and New Zealand.
Finally, fisheries and tourism are important sectors of the Oceania economy and a driver of its development. Fishing is an important source of income because many islands have maritime Exclusive Economic Zones that stretch for 370 km. Tourism is also important to Oceania, as tropical islands such as Fiji offer aesthetic beauty, while Australia and New Zealand are attracted by developed cities with modern infrastructure. New Zealand has also become an important tourism region in the industry.
Oceania countries
Oceania map / Wikipedia
Below is a list of the 14 independent countries in Oceania, ranked from largest to smallest by area:
1) Australia:
- Area: 7 617 930 km²
- Population: about 25 million people
- Capital: Canberra
2) Papua New Guinea:
- Area: 462,840 km²
- Population: more than 8,000,000 people
- Capital: Port Moresby
3) New Zealand:
- Area: 268 680 km²
- Population: about 5,000,000 people
- Capital: Wellington
4) Solomon Islands:
- Area: 28,450 km²
- Population: about 600,000 people
- Capitals: Honiara
5) Fiji:
- Area: 18,274 km²
- Population: about 900,000 people
- Capital: Suva
6) Vanuatu:
- Area: 12,189 km²
- Population: about 270,000 people
- Capital: Port Vila
7) Samoa:
- Area: 2842 km²
- Population: about 193,000 people
- Capital: Apia
8) Kiribati:
- Area: 811 km²
- Population: about 110,000 people
- Capital: Tarawa
9) Tonga:
- Area: 748 km²
- Population: about 107,000 people
- Capitals: Nuku'alofa
10) Federated States of Micronesia:
- Area: 702 km²
- Population: about 105,000 people
- Capital: Palikir
11) Palau:
- Area: 459 km²
- Population: about 21,000 people
- Capital: Melekeok
12) Marshall Islands:
- Area: 181 km²
- Population: about 53,000 people
- Capital: Majuro
13) Tuvalu:
- Area: 26 km²
- Capital: Funafuti
14) Nauru:
- Area: 21 km²
- Population: about 11,000 people
- Capital: No